Digital Dentistry Trends: A Comprehensive Guide

Digital dentistry is rapidly transforming the oral healthcare landscape. By integrating advanced technology into everyday practice, modern dental professionals can deliver more precise, efficient, and personalized care. This guide explores the latest trends shaping the field, from intelligent software to digital manufacturing, offering an in-depth look at how clinics are going high-tech. Whether you are a dentist, technician, or patient curious about the future, the following sections detail the most important developments in digital dental care and what they mean for clinical workflows and patient experience.

Dental practices around the world are embracing a digital workflow. Traditional analog steps—like physical impressions and manual planning—are being replaced by streamlined processes powered by software and hardware. Cutting-edge tools are making procedures faster and more predictable, while patients benefit from greater comfort and understanding of their treatment. Under the hood of this revolution are technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), 3D scanning, computer-aided design/manufacturing (CAD/CAM), and cloud connectivity. Together, they enable dentists to scan, design, and produce restorations with unprecedented speed and accuracy.

Key trends include:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning for diagnostics and treatment planning.
Advanced Imaging such as intraoral scanners and 3D radiography (CBCT) for detailed views of the mouth.
3D Printing and CAD/CAM systems for in-office manufacturing of crowns, dentures, guides, and aligners.
Cloud Integration and connected workflows to unite disparate systems (scanners, software, labs) into one seamless platform.
Patient-Centric Technologies like augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mobile apps that enhance communication and education.
Tele-dentistry and Remote Monitoring enabling virtual consultations and at-home care.
Digital Orthodontics for customized aligners and smart treatment tracking.
Robotics and Automation assisting surgical procedures and digital lab work.
Innovative Materials (smarter resins, ceramics, bioprinting) that expand clinical possibilities.

Below we take a closer look at each of these areas. By the end, you’ll understand how today’s dental offices leverage technology to deliver better outcomes and what developments lie just over the horizon.

Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry

Artificial intelligence (AI) has moved beyond the realm of science fiction and into everyday dental practice. AI systems and machine learning algorithms are now used to enhance diagnostic accuracy, automate design tasks, and personalize care. In plain terms, smart software is helping dentists spot problems earlier and plan treatment more efficiently.

For example, AI-powered programs can analyze digital X-rays and scans to detect early signs of cavities, gum disease, or even oral cancer that might be hard for the human eye to catch. These tools flag abnormalities and quantify things like bone loss or decay risk, giving clinicians a second set of eyes that never tires. This results in faster diagnoses and more informed treatment decisions.

Another game-changer is generative AI for restorative design. Instead of manually drawing a new crown or denture in CAD software, a dentist or technician can rely on an AI engine to propose a design automatically from a scan. These AI assistants can produce highly accurate crown shapes, inlays, bridges or even full dentures with minimal input, based on learned patterns from millions of cases. Dentists can review and fine-tune the AI output, dramatically speeding up digital smile design workflows. Over time, machine learning models get better as they “learn” from user feedback, making the process smarter year after year.

AI also plays a role in practice management and patient engagement. Chatbots and virtual assistants handle routine tasks like scheduling, appointment reminders or answering common patient questions. This automation frees up staff time and reduces no-shows. On the marketing side, AI tools help clinics analyze patient data to tailor reminders and follow-ups, ensuring that preventive visits and check-ups stay on schedule.

AI in dentistry offers many benefits:

Rapid, precise imaging analysis – catching issues earlier than before.
Automated CAD design – streamlining crown and bridge production.
Predictive analytics – forecasting outcomes and personalizing treatment plans.
Enhanced patient communication – using chatbots and visualizations.

As AI technology continues to improve, machine learning will deepen its influence. In the near future, we can expect fully AI-driven workflows, where routine design tasks are handled automatically and diagnostics are reinforced by predictive models. By leveraging AI, dental teams can focus more on patient care and less on time-consuming technical steps.

Digital Imaging and Intraoral Scanners

High-resolution digital imaging is at the core of modern dentistry. Two key advances—intraoral scanners and 3D radiography—have revolutionized how dentists gather information about a patient’s mouth.

Intraoral Scanners: Replacing Traditional Impressions

Intraoral scanners have quickly become essential tools in the clinic. Instead of taking a gooey physical impression with trays and putty, the dentist sweeps a small camera wand around the patient’s teeth. The scanner captures thousands of data points per second, constructing a detailed 3D model (a digital impression) of the arches. This model is accurate down to the microns, ensuring well-fitting restorations.

Benefits of intraoral scanning include:

Patient Comfort: No more gag-inducing impression material—scanning is quick, dry, and comfortable.
Speed: Scans can be completed in minutes, and the digital file is immediately available.
Precision: Digital impressions are very accurate, often more so than traditional methods, leading to better fits for crowns, bridges and appliances.
Visualization: Both dentist and patient see real-time 3D images on the screen during scanning. This fosters understanding and collaboration.

Adoption of IOS (intraoral scanners) has skyrocketed. In many advanced markets, over half of dentists now use scanners regularly. Younger dentists especially have grown up with digital tools and prefer them. Even in developing regions, more clinics are moving to IOS as prices fall and ease of use improves. Cutting-edge scanners are wireless, handheld, and capture color textures in addition to the 3D shape. Portable phone-based scanning attachments are also emerging, allowing even smaller practices to go digital.

Once a scan is in hand, it feeds into the rest of the digital workflow: it can be used to virtually design restorations, 3D-print models or prosthetics, and plan surgeries. Scanners are no longer optional extras; they are expected components of a modern practice.

Advanced Imaging: CBCT and Digital X-rays

Alongside intraoral scanning, digital radiography has also advanced. 3D cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) delivers volumetric images of a patient’s jaw, sinus, and airway. This technology provides clinicians with cross-sectional views to see internal structures in detail. For example, CBCT scans are invaluable for implant planning (showing bone height and nerve location) and endodontic diagnosis (revealing hidden canals or cracks).

Key points about advanced imaging:

Lower Radiation: New CBCT units use less radiation than older models, making 3D imaging safer.
High Resolution: Dentists can view fine details of bone, teeth and soft tissue, aiding in precise diagnosis.
Integration: CBCT data is easily merged with intraoral scans, giving a complete digital model of the mouth. Combining the two means an implant crown can be designed to both fit the bite (from the scan) and avoid critical anatomy (from the CBCT).
Digital X-rays: Even ordinary 2D X-rays are digital nowadays, providing instant images and easy sharing with labs or specialists.

Future imaging trends include higher-resolution scans (for example, pet-CT fusion for more context) and perhaps new modalities like near-infrared caries detection. For now, just about every digital dental office has moved from film X-rays to digital sensors or phosphor plates, and many have added CBCT for surgical cases.

3D Printing and Digital Manufacturing

Digital manufacturing is one of the most transformative trends in dentistry. 3D printers and CNC milling machines (CAD/CAM) let practices produce restorations and appliances on-site. The gap between the clinic and the lab is shrinking as offices bring more fabrication in-house.

3D Printing Revolution

Dentistry has seen a 3D printing boom. Desktop printers are now affordable enough for many practices, and their material range keeps expanding. Initially, 3D printing was mainly used for models and surgical guides. Today, it is common to 3D-print:

Dental Models: For study models or to produce aligners.
Crowns & Bridges: Temporary crowns are routinely 3D-printed, and even some permanent crown materials are available.
Dentures: Fully 3D-printed full dentures are coming to market with biocompatible denture resins. This can dramatically cut down denture production time.
Aligners & Splints: Orthodontic models for aligner production are printed in-house, enabling on-demand fabrication.
Surgical Guides: Custom guides for implant placement can be printed in minutes.

Advantages of 3D printing include speed and cost. Printers can produce multiple items simultaneously, often overnight. They use less material waste compared to milling (which carves out from a block). The price of printers and resins has dropped, so even small clinics can invest in them. Many dentists now choose a printer over a milling machine because the entry cost and maintenance are lower.

Materials for 3D printing keep improving. Each year brings new resins with better strength, esthetics, or biocompatibility. For instance, resin shifts are occurring as labs and companies release permanent crown resins and flexible denture resins. The latest materials can produce tooth-colored crowns and bridges, full-arch dentures, and long-lasting splints. Labs have responded in kind: companies like SprintRay and Formlabs have developed esthetic crown composites. As a result, an in-office 3D print of a crown or denture is moving from sci-fi into real clinical practice.

Consider these benefits of 3D printing:

Precision: Highly detailed prints ensure tight-fitting restorations.
Customization: Each print is custom-designed for that patient.
Reduced Turnaround: No waiting weeks for a lab; many prints can be done the same day.
Lower Cost: In-house printing can be far cheaper than outsourcing, once the equipment is in place.

In short, 3D printing is shifting lab work into the dental office. Clinicians can scan, design, and print in one seamless cycle. The next few years will only see more materials and faster printers, making same-day dentistry a reality for crowns, dentures, aligners and more.

CAD/CAM: Milling and Digital Fabrication

Closely related to printing is CAD/CAM milling. Traditional CAD/CAM systems (like CEREC, Planmeca, or Straumann inlays) carve restorations out of ceramic or composite blocks. While once rare and expensive, milling machines have become smaller and more economical. Many clinics use both milling and printing: for example, milled ceramic crowns for final restorations, and printed resin temporaries or dentures.

Key points on CAD/CAM:

Digital Design: Crowns, bridges and inlays are designed on-screen using software (exocad, 3Shape, etc.). The design is then fabricated.
Speed: Single-visit crowns can be milled from solid block in under an hour.
Materials: High-strength ceramics (like zirconia) and composites can be milled. This is critical for permanent restorations where printing materials are not yet viable.
Integration: Many CAD/CAM units now connect with scanners and cameras for a truly digital workflow.

Some practices go “fully digital,” scanning the patient, designing restorations, and milling or printing on-site for same-day dentistry. Others use digital design but send out the file to a lab for production. Either way, CAD/CAM has greatly increased efficiency and control for dentists.

In summary, digital fabrication (milling and 3D printing) is making dentistry faster, more precise, and often cheaper. With both technologies maturing, expect restorative procedures to continue shifting to in-house production.

Digital Orthodontics and Personalized Treatments

The orthodontic field is especially digital-focused. Gone are days of solely using Plaster models and X-rays for braces. Now, a combination of scanning, computer planning, and 3D printing drives the industry.

Clear Aligners: Companies like Invisalign rely on digital workflows. A patient’s bite is scanned, and software simulates tooth movement. The dentist or lab then prints series of models and thermoforms aligners that gradually shift the teeth. Many practices now offer their own aligner services, printing models in the office to produce aligners in-house.
Customized Appliances: Brackets, retainers and habit appliances are increasingly designed on computer. For example, custom bracket placement trays can be printed for precise bonding of braces. Removable appliances can be thermoformed on 3D-printed models for an exact fit.
Digital Smile Design (DSD): Orthodontics meets esthetics when software visualizes the final outcome. Digital Smile Design allows patients to see a preview of their new smile, aligning teeth virtually before treatment even begins. This interactive approach improves patient understanding and treatment acceptance.
3D Imaging in Ortho: Advanced imaging (like Cephalometric CBCT) merges with digital planning. Orthodontists use facial scans and 3D jaw models to plan movements in harmony with a patient’s facial structure, not just the teeth in isolation.

What does this mean? Treatments are more predictable and tailored than ever. Algorithms can calculate the precise forces needed to achieve a particular tooth movement. Monitoring can even happen remotely—some aligner systems have apps or sensors that let the dentist check progress without an office visit.

In the future, AI-driven orthodontics will refine this even further. Imagine software that automatically suggests the optimal alignment sequence, or smart sensors in aligners that adjust pressure in real-time. While those innovations are on the horizon, the current trends already allow personalized, efficient ortho care. Patients benefit from shorter treatment times and fewer manual appointments.

Patient Experience and Consumer Technologies

Today’s dental patients are digital consumers. They expect the same convenience and transparency in healthcare that they get in other areas of life. As a result, many dental trends revolve around enhancing the patient experience through digital tools.

Patient Education: Interactive 3D models and simulations help patients understand their treatment. For example, showing a patient a 3D scan of their mouth with cavities highlighted, or demonstrating how an implant will look in place, can turn a vague explanation into a clear picture. Augmented reality (AR) is entering this space; using an AR app, a patient might see a projected image of their tooth on a screen or even on their own face to visualize changes. Tools like Digital Smile Design let patients preview their future smile in color photos. These visual aids build trust and often increase case acceptance because the patient literally sees the plan.

Communication Apps: Many practices now use custom apps or secure messaging to engage patients. Appointment reminders, post-op care instructions, and educational videos can be delivered on a patient’s phone. Some offices use tablets in the operatory to show patients X-rays or scan results. Others have patient portals where individuals can view their own records and treatment plans. This level of engagement meets the modern expectation of instant, transparent communication.

Comfort Innovations: While not purely “digital,” technology helps the office feel more patient-friendly. Office management systems can reduce wait times. Some practices even offer virtual reality headsets or music streaming to make visits relaxing. Digital forms (via tablets) replace paperwork, streamlining the check-in process. These small touches create a more pleasant experience.

In essence, the patient journey is becoming a digital one. From booking an appointment through an app, to virtually discussing treatment options, to accessing aftercare resources online, technology keeps patients informed and involved. Practices that leverage these tools differentiate themselves as modern and caring.

Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, and Immersive Technologies

Immersive technologies are making their way into dentistry, enhancing both clinical practice and education. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) open new possibilities for visualization and interaction.

AR in the Clinic: AR overlays digital information on the real world in real time. In dental surgery, for instance, AR glasses or tablet apps can project guidance onto the patient. A surgeon might see a virtual marker indicating the optimal drill angle for an implant. Overlays can show jaw anatomy or nerve paths right in the field of view. This real-time guidance improves precision and safety. For patient education, AR can display animated 3D models on a screen. A patient could point a tablet at their own X-ray and see a virtual restoration appear in place of a missing tooth. This visual context helps patients grasp procedures much faster than verbal descriptions alone.
VR for Training and Relaxation: Virtual reality is being used for education and patient comfort. Dental students can train on VR simulators that mimic the feel of drilling or filling a tooth. This allows practice without a live patient, improving skills and confidence. Some clinics use VR headsets to distract anxious patients during procedures, immersing them in a calm virtual environment (like a beach scene). This can reduce perceived pain and anxiety. VR can also be used for patient walkthroughs; imagine putting on VR goggles to preview the results of orthodontic treatment or cosmetic dentistry in a fully immersive way.
Patient Engagement: AR apps on smartphones can let patients see how different tooth shades or alignments would look on them. For example, AR filters might show a patient how braces would gradually straighten their smile, or how a veneer could whiten a tooth. These consumer-friendly tools blur the line between gaming and dentistry, making consultations interactive.

The trend is clear: immersive tech is no longer science fiction in dentistry. Dentists are experimenting with AR to improve surgical outcomes and with VR to ease patient fears. As the hardware (glasses, headsets) becomes cheaper and software easier to develop, expect more AR/VR solutions targeted specifically at dental practices. These tools offer a vivid, hands-on way to visualize complex treatments, benefitting both providers and patients.

Teledentistry and Remote Care

The adoption of teledentistry exploded during the COVID-19 pandemic, and it remains a key trend. Telehealth platforms for dentistry allow consultations and follow-ups to happen virtually, saving time and extending access.

Virtual Consultations: Through secure video calls, patients can have an initial check-up or a postoperative review without stepping into the office. A patient in a remote area can have a virtual exam by showing intraoral photos or videos via a smartphone camera. Dentists can triage issues, prescribe antibiotics, or determine if an in-person visit is needed. This convenience is especially beneficial for non-urgent concerns or for elderly patients with mobility issues. Many insurance plans and clinics now cover or offer teledentistry as part of their services.
Remote Monitoring: New devices and apps enable ongoing monitoring of oral health. For example, smart intraoral cameras allow patients to take high-quality pictures of their teeth at home. These images can be sent to the dentist for review. Some companies are developing sensor-equipped aligners or retainers that track wear time or detect grinding. In the near future, wearable devices (like smart toothbrushes) could transmit data on brushing habits or even plaque levels to the dentist’s dashboard.
Digital Care Networks: Teledentistry also connects dentists with specialists and labs. A clinic can send a scan or X-ray instantly to a specialist across the country for a second opinion. Communication is quicker and more streamlined, often happening through cloud portals. This collaboration ensures patients benefit from a team approach, even if all experts aren’t under one roof.

Teledentistry is not a replacement for hands-on care (filling a cavity still requires a drill!), but it is a powerful complement. It increases access for patients in rural or underserved areas, saves travel time, and can keep routine check-ins on schedule. Many practices now offer a combination of in-person and virtual appointments. This hybrid model is likely to stick around as technology improves. In fact, regulators and insurance providers are expanding coverage for tele-dental visits, recognizing their role in preventive care and public health.

Cloud Computing and Integrated Systems

A behind-the-scenes shift in digital dentistry is the move to cloud-based software and integrated platforms. Rather than storing patient records on a single computer or server, many practices and labs now use cloud services to host their data and applications.

Cloud Practice Management: Patient records, scheduling, billing and imaging files are increasingly kept in the cloud. This has several advantages: data is securely backed up off-site, it can be accessed from any location, and multiple team members can collaborate easily. For example, a clinician at one office and a lab technician in another can both work with the same case file simultaneously if it’s on the cloud. Cloud software also often includes features like built-in analytics or AI support, since powerful remote servers can handle heavy tasks.

Interoperability and ‘Hyper-Connectivity’: One of the biggest challenges in digital dentistry has been the fragmentation of systems. A scanner, a CBCT unit, CAD software, and a practice management system might all come from different vendors and speak different “languages.” The trend now is toward open platforms and standard data formats (like universal STL, DICOM files). This allows devices and software to talk to each other. For instance, a scan captured in one system can be automatically recognized by another.

This connected ecosystem means smoother workflows. Imagine: A patient’s IOS scan is automatically uploaded to the cloud, which triggers a workflow where design software picks it up, produces a restoration, then sends it to a 3D printer, all without manual file transfers. Meanwhile, the patient’s chart is simultaneously updated with each step. Centralizing data in the cloud makes this seamless connectivity possible.

Digital Twin of the Patient: Looking ahead, dentistry is moving toward the concept of a digital twin – a virtual model of the patient’s mouth and even entire anatomy. This combines intraoral scans, X-rays, CBCT data, facial scans, and historical treatment records into one comprehensive digital profile. The digital twin could be used for life-long treatment planning, where every new intervention is planned in context. AI could analyze the twin to predict future dental issues or optimize treatment sequences. Achieving a true digital twin requires heavy integration and cloud services that can store and process huge data sets. As more devices adopt cloud connectivity, building these patient avatars becomes more feasible.

Overall, cloud computing is essential for modern digital dentistry. It ensures data security, collaboration, and scale. Practices leveraging cloud services can grow (with multiple offices) without worrying about local IT, and can adopt new digital tools more quickly. In short, the cloud is the backbone that lets all other digital dentistry trends work together effectively.

Robotics and Automation

Robotics in dentistry is an emerging trend that promises to add precision and efficiency to certain procedures. While still in early stages, robotic systems are entering the scene:

Surgical Robotics: For dental implants, some robots assist with drilling. These systems (like Yomi or similar) use surgical guides and robotic arms to precisely position implants according to the virtual plan. The robot can limit the drill’s movement to the exact canal planned in the software, reducing human hand-shake error. As a result, implant placement becomes more accurate and repeatable.
Automated Milling: In dental labs, automated milling centers can run with minimal human oversight. Operators load blocks of ceramic, and the machine mills crowns or bridges overnight. Robotics here speeds up production and reduces labor costs.
Lab Automation: Beyond milling, some labs are automating tasks like grinding, polishing, and even packaging. Robots can handle dangerous or mundane steps, letting technicians focus on design and quality control.
AI-Driven Robotics: The line between AI and robotics is blurring. Imagine a future handpiece that adjusts its angle and speed using sensors (like a robotic assistant guiding the dentist’s hand), or a smart bur that knows when it hits enamel vs. dentin. Research is being done on haptic devices for training and even robotic arms that could one day perform certain restorative tasks under dentist supervision.

While full-on robot dentists are not around the corner, incremental automation is happening now. Dentists might see more chairside automation (like automated mixing machines for materials, robotic traceries, etc.). In any case, robotics and AI together are making repetitive tasks faster, more precise, and less operator-dependent.

Smart Materials and Future Materials

The materials used in dentistry are becoming smarter and more varied, enabling new treatments. Digital dentistry is not just about software; it also relies on the physical substances that make up restorations and prostheses.

High-Performance 3D Printing Resins: New resin formulations let us print not only temporary parts but permanent ones too. Biocompatible crown materials and denture resins with high strength are now on the market. Researchers are even working on ceramic-like resins that mimic enamel’s durability when printed.
Bioactive Composites: These are filling materials and adhesives that do more than just fill cavities. Bioactive materials can release fluoride or calcium to help remineralize tooth structure. Some new composites adapt to occlusion and harden stronger under light or temperature. These materials integrate digital calibration (matching color or hardness) via shade scanners and curing units.
Nanomaterials: Nanotechnology is enhancing dental materials. For example, adding nanoparticles can improve polishability, color stability, or antibacterial properties. Manufacturers are experimenting with self-cleaning or stain-resistant coatings at the nanoscale.
Bioprinting and Tissue Engineering: Looking further ahead, 3D bioprinting is a fascinating research trend. Scientists are exploring printing living cells on scaffolds to regenerate dentin, bone or even whole teeth. While this is mostly experimental, the idea of printing a tooth with pulp and roots could one day change everything. For now, the impact of bioprinting is more in the lab (creating bone grafts or nerve channels), but it’s a trend to watch.

In practice today, dentists choose the latest ceramics and polymers to complement digital workflows. The combination of CAD/CAM and high-tech materials means restorations look better and last longer. As material science advances, we’ll likely see even more direct printing of sophisticated materials and new formulations that react intelligently (for example, fillings that glow under UV if caries reappear).

Sustainability and Efficiency

While not often highlighted, digital dentistry has an eco-friendly angle. By reducing waste and optimizing resources, many digital workflows are greener than their analog counterparts. For instance:

Less Physical Waste: Traditional impressions create wasteful leftovers (impression compound that must be thrown away). Digital scans produce virtually no waste. Any printed models or parts use only the material needed, often less than milling.
Energy Efficiency: Newer digital devices tend to be energy-efficient. Cloud computing means offices run fewer local servers. Equipment runs only when needed.
Remote Work: Cloud and teledentistry mean less commuting for both patients and staff, marginally reducing carbon footprint.
Digital Planning: Accurate digital planning reduces remakes. Fewer remakes means fewer visits, less material used, and less lab energy expended.

Dentists focused on sustainability often tout these points. While patient care is paramount, it’s a bonus that many digital advancements also cut down on environmental impact.

Emerging Innovations: A Glimpse of What’s Next

Digital dentistry is still evolving. Here are a few emerging trends on the horizon:

Smart Glasses and Hands-Free Devices: Apart from AR headsets, we may see dentists wearing smart glasses that display patient records or guides without looking away from the chair. This would allow real-time data access during procedures.
Blockchain for Records: Some futurists talk about using blockchain to secure patient data and share it seamlessly across providers. This could ensure data integrity and privacy in a highly connected world.
Machine Vision Cameras: Cameras in the operatory might soon automatically capture high-quality documentation (photos, scans, videos) during procedures, triggered by voice command, reducing the need to stop and photograph.
Genetic and Microbiome Data: Imagine integrating a patient’s genetic susceptibility or oral microbiome analysis into the treatment plan. AI could combine genetic risk factors with digital imaging to personalize preventive care.
Artificial Teeth Materials: Research into biomineralizing materials could lead to fillings that stimulate real enamel regrowth. Combined with 3D printing, we might one day “print” a tooth’s outer layer on the spot.

In the end, the direction is clear: dentistry is becoming ever more digitally-driven, data-rich, and patient-focused. The tools that once seemed futuristic—AI diagnosis, fully digital labs, remote monitoring—are now everyday topics in industry magazines and conferences.

Dental professionals who stay informed and invest in these technologies are finding their practices more efficient and patient-friendly. As devices become smaller, faster and cheaper, digital dentistry will trickle into even the smallest clinics. The bottom line is that technology is not replacing dentists; it is empowering them. By automating repetitive tasks and enhancing communication, these digital trends free clinicians to do what they do best: care for patients.

As you’ve seen in this guide, the age of high-tech dentistry is already here. With each passing year, expect more integration, smarter software, and innovative materials to enter the operatory. The future of oral healthcare is digital, and for patients and providers alike, that means more accurate diagnoses, shorter treatment times, and dentistry tailored to individual needs. Keep watching this space—today’s trends could be tomorrow’s routine procedures.